Human Variation & Race

COLD

Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada: My Hometown

Reaching -56 with wind-chill

Now don’t get me wrong! Saskatoon is beautiful in the winter; it’s just unbearable to head outside without your bunny hug, toque and boots on! For those that may not know what a “bunny hug” is, it’s a jacket and a “toque” is like a beanie… except it’s lined with special layers to keep your head excessively warm. Like I said, winter can be beautiful in my hometown…

But the novelty shortly wears off quickly, unless you stay inside most of the winter!

Environmental Stresses of living in the Cold!

Sure it may be fun to have snow for Christmas, it may be fun to make snow angels and snowmen but there are also factors of the cold environment that can harm human beings. Such things include: Hypothermia, trench foot, frostbite, vasoconstriction and an increase in metabolic response to the cold. Lots of these factors given can result in colds (flu’s of the worst kind!), amputation of limbs and even death. There have also been studies that show exposure to cold climate increases blood pressure, which may be a fact contributing to the greater mortality rate due to cardiovascular disease and stroke, observed in winter. Therefore we can say that environmental stress of cold climates, such as Saskatoon, negatively impacts the survival of humans by disturbing homeostasis.  

Interesting Fact:

Physically fit persons do better in cold than the inactive or the unfit. Subcutaneous fat is particularly beneficial in cold water. Successful swimmers of the English Channel (or more recently Cuba to Florida) tend to be women with thick fat layers. Central Australian Aborigines can sleep in the nude unperturbed at temperatures close to freezing.

Article Read:

Saskatchewan blizzard of 2007

The Saskatchewan Blizzard of 2007 was a winter storm that struck northeastern British Columbia, central Alberta and central Saskatchewan on Wednesday, January 10, 2007. The storm hit the city of Saskatoon severely and is considered to be one of the worst storms in Saskatchewan's history. It brought motor vehicle traffic to a standstill, stranded people and shut down many public services. There were two fatalities from the storm.

City streets in Saskatoon were also clogged with snow, slowing traffic. Some roads in the city's outer periphery were impassable due to high drifts. 14 major intersections were closed or deemed impassable.

All branches of Saskatoon's public library closed in the afternoon as did city leisure facilities, indoor skating rinks and public schools. Several businesses allowed their employees to go home early, while the University of Saskatchewan shut down along with SIAST Kelsey campus and government agencies. Hotels were filled with stranded travellers and city residents who could not drive home because of the inclement conditions. Some people resorted to taking refuge overnight in businesses such as Costco.

Emergency services spent the day responding to accidents, rescuing stranded motorists from stuck vehicles, and closing roads. SaskTel's cellular telephone network was overloaded with calls, prompting the Saskatoon fire department to urge the public to refrain from using mobile phones all in but emergency situations.

Two people died in the storm. An 18-year-old man and 38-year-old woman, both from the Onion Lake Cree Nation, were caught in the blizzard and died from hypothermia after attempting to walk home from their vehicle.

The single day record snowfall in Saskatoon for the date of January 10 was shattered by this storm. 25 centimeters (9.8 in) of snow fell during the blizzard, far surpassing the old record of 10.2 centimeters (4.0 in) set back in 1938.

Short Term Adaptions:

When the environment is very cold, life can depend on the ability of our bodies to reduce heat loss and to increase internal heat production.  Many people living in freezing climates drink alcohol to warm themselves (Everybody loves a little brandy by the fireplace!). This increases blood flow to the body extremities, thereby providing a feeling of warmth.  However, it results only in a temporary warming and can speed up the loss of heat from the vital internal organs, resulting in more rapid death from hypothermia. Shivering can also cause a short-term warming effect. The increased muscle activity in shivering results in some heat production.

Facultative:

What happens in cold weather is most of your body’s energy is used to keep your internal temperature warm. In other words, your “core”: chest and abdomen. So the blood will begin to shift from your hands, feet, arms and legs and into your core, allowing these extremities of the body to cool rapidly and increase your risk of hypothermia and frostbite. This process of heating your core is known as vasoconstriction. In a more “medical” way to describe the process is: the narrowing of the blood vessels resulting from contraction of the muscular wall of the vessels, particularly the large arteries and small arterioles. When blood vessels constrict, the flow of blood is restricted or decreased, thus, retaining body heat or increasing vascular resistance. This makes the skin turn paler because less blood reaches the surface, reducing the radiation of heat. And when discussing reduction in the metabolic response to cold, it may be caused by a change in either the threshold for onset of shivering, or in the sensitivity (gain) of the shivering response, or both.

Developmental:

Body size and shape are significant factors in how efficiently an individual responds physiologically to cold climates. 

In 1877, the American biologist Joel Allen went further than Bergmann in observing that the “length of arms, legs, and other appendages also has an effect on the amount of heat lost to the surrounding environment. He noted that among warm-blooded animals, individuals in populations of the same species living in warm climates near the equator tend to have longer limbs than do populations living further away from the equator in colder environments.  This is due to the fact that a body with relatively long appendages is less compact and subsequently has more surface area.  The greater the surface area, the faster body heat will be lost to the environment”.  This same idea can be observed among humans.  Members of the Masai tribe of East Africa are normally tall and have slender bodies with long limbs that assist in the loss of body heat.  This is an optimal body shape in the hot tropical parts of the world but it would be a disadvantage in subarctic regions.  In such extremely cold environments, a stocky body with short appendages would be more efficient at maintaining body heat because it would have relatively less surface area compared to body mass.

People, who are regularly exposed to cold in their natural habitat, have been reported to exhibit less pronounced shivering, a greater fall in body temperature creating a hypometabolic and hypothermic type of adaption.

Cultural:

This by far has to be the most exciting adaptions us Canadians have! I figured I would expand on the Saskatechwanians, since I’ve experienced 18 years of their winters! I mean it’s neat to read about how human bodies adapt, but it’s much more fun to think about how creative cultures gets when staying warm! Here are just a few things as Saskatoonians consider in the cold months:

Diet:

Warm foods consisting of soups, anything oven roasted, and poutines. Poutines you ask? It’s a Canadian specialty that consists of gravy, curds of cheese and thick wedge potatoes (also know as fries).

Every time I go up to Canada for a visit, I enjoy one of these heart attacks on a plate.

Clothing:

1. Long-Johns

2. Mukluks

3. Snow Shoes

4. Ski-pants

5. Ski-Goggles

6. Parkas

7. 3 pairs of socks on (at the same time)

8. Bunnyhug’s

9. Toque

10. Mittens with heating packs sew in

Activities:

When enjoying activities in extremely cold climates, one usually does activities that will benefit themselves in the long run. Take for example: cross-country skiing! Now here is a great work out and a sport, plus you get to travel through all of the snow to get to your destination! This also applies for snowshoes J We also enjoy games of Bridge, Old Maid and Bingo indoors with the availability of a fireplace, stone heater or at least brandy to warm up our bodies!     

In all fairness, us Canadians are no different then Americans. We shop, go out for dinners, watch movies and enjoy each other’s company. The only true difference is the climate we experience during the winter seasons. And as much fun as I had writing the “cultural adaptions” for the Canadians, we truly do not eat poutines everyday; but I insist on trying one whenever a visit to Canada comes along!

Learning from Human Variations:

When approaching a change in climate, whether that is for relocation, or perhaps just a trip, it is vital to understand the stresses the environment will have on you. When I was researching on the topic of the effects cold has on the human body, I was shocked to find I was never taught any of this in Canada. I mean I was taught about hypothermia and frostbite, and to take precautions; but I was unaware of the effects the cold has on your body as a whole (blood rate, stroke etc.). I guess it is accustom to just learn from experience when you actually live in a dreadfully cold climate.

In the article previously mentioned, Saskatchewan Blizzard of 2010, I was in my 3^rd period class when I looked outside to see I could not locate my car. Not because it had been stolen, but because of the blizzard limiting visibility and the fact that a snow drift had buried it. That morning we were informed on the raido there may be a storm, and to dress appropriately. Well normally we wear jeans and a big parka to school anyways, so I never changed my usual attire. That day I wish I did. After a panic rushed throughout school, we were free to go home, stay safe and keep warm. Normally a drive to my high school was about 15 minutes. My father came and picked my sister and I up (in a big work truck) and it took us 7 and half hours to get home. The entire time I was thinking, if we broke down, I don’t know how long we’d last. It is very important to dress accordingly to the weather, and even when you think you’ll be warm enough for the day, remember the weather can change in the blink of an eye!

Understanding Variations of Adaptions:

Race should not be discussed when we are evaluating variations of adaption. Especially the ones I have listed in regards to “cold”. The environment is the essential concept that needs to be understood, and studied when we look at why us humans are so varied from one another, and how we adapt to our environment. Take for example the Developmental category I wrote on, the tribe in East Africa that have developed to have slender long arms and legs to keep cool. And how Canadians are rather short (well its true!) and this idea is believed to maintain body heat. 

Barriers of Simple Conversation

Part A:

First off I have to start by saying, I think out of all the assignments we have written, researched and taken part in, this one was by far the most challenging! I’ve heard silly jokes that women can’t go 5 minutes, let alone 15 minutes without interrupting a conversation; with that being said, I’m interested in how this worked out for the males in this class to see if they find it as “challenging” as women supposedly do.

I wanted this assignment to really test me. So instead of sitting within a group of friends and listening, which I find easier to do, I sat and listened to my boyfriend… for 15 minutes straight. Not a word escaped my mouth, but OMG was there ever a few I wanted to say after! It was extremely challenging just listening and not being able speak. Also, after realizing how much I rolled my eyes, I knew I had to find new ways through body language to actually try to communicate with him. This also posed a huge challenge, my actions were interrupted in different ways then they were meant, which was so FRUSTRATING. So instead of agreeing with him and encouraging the ideas he was talking about, my crazy hand gestures, followed with extreme spasmodic head nods, discouraged him to continue talking about one topic and moved to another, which I didn’t want. Also, these actions may have scared him into thinking I was going into a seizure. 

After this assignment was finished, I wanted to see if maybe he was just challenging me, to see if I wouldn't say anything to the somewhat outrageous comments and sports commentaries given. So throughout the weekend I tried to listen more, without saying anything. It was crazy how much more he opened up with the time I didn't interrupt him. 

Chase (my boyfriend) is an amazingly patient person who always just wants to help. By doing this assignment I realized that a lot more can come out of just listening to a person then continuously interrupting someone. Although, I still stand by what I said previously about it being rather frustrating not being able to "properly" communicate with words. I am lucky I had Chase to work with on this assignment, we both challenge each other and push each other, and this made for an eye opening experience, in more ways then one. First, like mentioned earlier, actually listening and learning from him and secondly, to think about how communication through voice is crucial. Those who cannot speak are at a disadvantageous to actually being heard, not in a "vocal cord" sense, but by being misunderstood, miscommunicated with and ultimately blocked by a "talking barrier". Those who know sign language can communicate, but based off this assignment if they didn't know it, it would be so incredibly hard. 

Part B:

This part really ticked me off. It was bad enough having to sit and listen the day before and try to communicate through gestures, but now I have to be monotone… which as lame as this sounds, I needed to practice the night before at. HOW INCREDIBLY HARD not allowing any expression in your voice. I once had a professor in a class of 250 students that was monotone, and it was the most challenging class. It was hard to “get into” the lectures given, and it was hard to be interested in the topics discussed… and la de da same thing happened to me when I had no expression in my voice. Pretty sure everyone lost interested, and the first thing said after I made a comment was, “Why are you talking so weird?” I explained to the group of people what I was doing, and of course it became a game of “lets get her to talk the most.” The other part that I could BARELY grasp was not using hand gestures or body language! OMG I talk with my hands so much, it’s like I’m trying to land a plane. So, besides not allowing any altering in my tones, I wasn’t allowed to express myself through body movement, which was so hard. I realized the same thing occurred as what happened in Part A; I was misunderstood on EVERYTHING I was saying. If I meant one thing, to them it meant another. If I was excited about another, it seemed as though I disliked it. If I truly despised something, it was as though I was neutral on the idea. 

Body language is also crucial for communication, which makes me think about those who cannot read body language. Wether visually impaired or just cannot differentiate from one body language sign to the next. This will create miscommunication between parties, which is unfortunate. The people I worked with for this assignment instantly knew something was different about the way I was talking and acting...but what if they didn't know it was an assignment and it was the first time we were meeting? 

Both scenarios of just listening and creating body language (not using sign language) and not allowed to use body language only mono-toned speech opened my eyes to the problems of communication. For those that can't physically participate in it, and to those that can but are misunderstood, communication is a huge part in todays world and society. This assignment was challenging, eye-opening and perplexing. 

Piltdown Man Hoax!

Piltdown man was discovered in the early 1900’s and fooled scientists for more then 40 years. “It was a terrible distraction” as one scientist, states. It was 1912 near the southern English town of Louis in the village of Piltdown, when Charles Dawson was digging in a gravel pit and found something amazing… Dawson had claimed to have found a piece of an ancient human skull! Charles Dawson invited England’s leading geologist, Arthur Smith Woodward of the Natural History Museum, to verify that the skull had human features. Charles Dawson also invited French paleontologist Father Pierre Teilhard de Chardin to join in on the findings. They had located certain stone tools and animal fossils, which were deemed “sensational finds”. Charles Dawson found a jawbone that apparently was connected to the skull found. The jaw contained teeth that had been worn down, a wear pattern, worn flat, that shows the same for humans!

In December 1912, Woodward made the announcement of the discovery. His findings had a huge impact on the scientific community, proving that England contained ancient human fossils just like the great countries of Asia and Africa did. This finding also had a huge impact on the community as it was considered the “holy grail” of findings, the missing link of humans and apes.

Woodward’s prestige erased any doubts of Piltdown man, even though he only specialized in fish fossils. Also supporting Woodward was Arthur Keith, to which Woodward’s findings supported his personal theory of human evolution: that humans develop big brains before they walk upright. Woodward also had a volunteer, Martin Hinton that disliked his boss Woodward, but participated in helping him uncover more fossils in the following years which silenced all remaining skeptics.

Something wasn’t right though. After Dawson had died in 1916, no more bones were being found. Also, Fossils were being found all over the world and were showing that human ancestors living after Piltdown man were less human NOT more human.

The turning point came after World War 2 an advent of new technology that allowed for scientists to roughly date artifacts.  This concept was the measuring of the fluoride content of fossils. In 1949 scientists conducted a fluorine test on Piltdown man, the results amazed them the results were young, 100,000 years ago.

But in 1953 a full scale analysis with better dating methods was used on the Piltdown man fossil… and the hoax was about to unravel. The jaw…dated back to just a 100 years! Under extensive analysis scientists saw that the fossils were cut, and artificially stained. The teeth, under a microscope, showed that they had been filled down… to a desired shape. Scientists now see that pieces of the skull and jaw had been removed so that they could be placed together. All evidence pointed to the forgery of Piltdown man fossils, who would do this? Why?

“It can happen…that wasn’t fair… but now we know it could happen and therefore we’re alert to that possibility.”

After this hoax was unveiled, I believe many scientists were slightly heart broken; two reasons, one reason, being because the fossils turned out to be altered, and secondly that someone from the scientific community would try to fool everyone, including other scientists.

 All humans contain faults; no one is perfect. The human faults that come into play here are status and jealously. The idea that your name will be associated with the “Holy Grail” of human and ape linkage, could make some people act in certain ways, or lie to obtain a certain name or association with that finding. As spoken in the video, jealously between countries that pushed for a finding whether it was real or fake. The idea that great countries were proving the existence of ancient human ancestors and England had proven nothing yet.

Observation: The skull and jawbone were observed in 1953 (and previous, but this was the “extensive” look) and went under an extensive full-scale analysis.

Hypothesis: I believe since the results of fluoride tests in 1949 dated the skull from 100,000 years ago, scientists wanted to get to the bottom of this finding, and produced another date from their fluorine test that dated the skull only 100 years back. Now the scientists needed to figure out what was going on!

Experiment: Through fluorine dating, microscopic looks and closer observation the testing proved flaws in the finding: filed down teeth, artificially stained fossils and chiseled and filed artifacts.

Conclusion: The Piltdown Man is a forgery. A hoax.

We cannot remove human factors from science. Scientists want to be associated with a great finding that will challenge ideas and methods already standing. Scientists will always be involved in the work they do, the work they create and the outcome that proceeds. With this being said, this is WHY we cannot remove the human factors from science. Human factors challenge everything; human factors stand for what they believe in. Human factors push people to prove one thing or another. Unfortunately in this case, the scientists were pushed to far and lied about their findings. What about other scientists that are pushed to find new ways that will not falsify evidence? These scientists show the hard work, dedication and extreme personal pride in what they truly love and with that, make magnificent findings. 

Even if information comes from a reliable source or not, always look at the analysis it underwent. I do realize though, that if it is from an unverified source, not to trust it until I have all the facts, or that the item being questioned as been verified elsewhere by a reliable source. 

Patterns of Dentition Effecting Diets in Primates!

We were asked to find and express one particular type of trait across the five categories of primates we were given. Based off the first initial of my last name, I had to find a trait relating to the diet of these primates. The common trait relating to their diets, resides in their Dentition!

Lemurs (Prosimians/Strepsirhini)- Lemurs are primates found only on the African island of Madagascar and some tiny neighboring islands. Overgrown forests seem to be the location where the highest numbers of Lemurs are found. During the rain season there is more food in those areas! b) Lemur dentition contains 2 incisors, 1 canine, 3 premolars and 3 molars, making a dental formula of 2:1:3:3 = 36. Lemurs contain what is known as the “toothcomb”, found at the bottom of the jaw, which contains 6 teeth normally (unless one is lost!), which are finely spread out. The toothcomb is usually used for grooming, but can have other uses such as food procurement and bark gouging. Lemurs diets contain insects, berries, fruits and nuts. Since the lemurs teeth are not as "equipped" as, lets say the Baboons teeth, their teeth won't allow for the diet to consist of larger game. c) Since lemurs are only found in tiny neighboring islands around Madagascar and on the island itself, the toothcomb comes in handy for these little guys to maintain a clean, groomed coat in the unpredictable climate!

Spider Monkey (New World Monkey/Platyrrhini)- Spider monkeys (of several species) live in the tropical rain forests of Central and South America and occur as far north as Mexico. Spider monkeys live in evergreen rainforests, semi deciduous and mangrove forests, almost never coming to the ground. In these forests they live mostly in the upper canopy, preferring undisturbed high forest.

b) Spider Monkey’s dentition contains 2 incisors, 1 canine, 3 premolars and 3 molars, making a dental formula of 2:1:3:3 = 36. These monkeys reflect dentition of “old world monkeys”. The spider monkey’s teeth match that of their body’s, small in structure. Although their teeth help them in chewing the food, it’s their crafty use of rocks used for digging up plants as well as cracking open seeds and smashing pieces of lizards into bite-size pieces. In addition, they use twigs to get insects out of small, constricted crevices and other places. c) Since their teeth are rather small, and not as useful as their tools and hands, they have evolved a nifty prehensile tail, meaning that they have the ability to physically grasp something. Living in rain forests, smaller teeth are fitting for the setting; eating fruits and nuts and using their tails for preparing/catching the food.

Baboon (Old World Monkey/Cercopithecidae)- There are five different species of baboons. All of them live in Africa or Arabia. Baboons are some of the world's largest monkeys. Baboons generally prefer savanna and other semi-arid habitats, though a few live in tropical forests. b) Baboon (Catarrhines) dentition contains 2 premolars and 3 molars, making a dental formula of 2:1:2:3 = 32 teeth. Males can have canine teeth as long as 2 inches! c) These long canine teeth give the baboons an edge for hunting, since they are omnivorous, meaning they have a diet consisting of both meat and vegetables. 

The environment they live in such as Africa, allows for them to hunt for larger game and therefore need these big canines! Also, baboons are known for their aggression, when they feel frightened, threatened or are possibly showing off they will flash their big teeth, and in some cases use them. Using their teeth would allow for the long canine to stab, tear and rip their meals apart.

Gibbon (Lesserape/Hylobatidae)-
 These acrobatic mammals are found only in the tropical forests of southeastern Asia, including on Sumatra, Borneo, Java, and other islands as well as the mainland and are perfectly adapted to life in the trees and rarely descend to the ground. b) Gibbons (Catarrhines) dentition contains 2 premolars and 3 molars, making a dental formula of 2:1:2:3 = 32 teeth. Their teeth reflect their sexual dimorphism and thus their canine’s will vary in size. c) Gibbon’s rarely descend to the ground, and live in lush forests, with this being said their teeth have evolved to support living in the trees. Being omnivorous, their teeth (high cusps) allow for them to grind food and maintain their diets up in the trees!

Chimpanzee (Great ape/Hominidae)- Chimpanzees live in social communities of several dozen animals, and can habituate themselves to African rain forests, woodlands, and grasslands. Chimpanzees are found throughout 21 different countries in western and central Africa where they are known to inhabit a variety of different regions from the tropical, humid rainforests to the dryer and more arid regions of the savanna and open woodlands. Chimps are mainly found in rain forests and wet savannas. While they spend equal time on land and in trees, they do most of their feeding and sleeping in trees. b) Chimpanzees (Catarrhines) have 2 premolars and 3 molars, making a dental formula of 2:1:2:3 = 32 teeth. c) Chimpanzees are omnivorous and their diets contain hundreds of different types of food. Living in 21 different countries, the canines found in chimpanzees come in handy when tearing their food with their teeth and hands. They tend to stick to plants, fruits and insects when they eat!

Homologous and Analogous Traits

Homologous Traits:
Human’s and Dolphin possess the same Homologous trait... their hands and their fins!

                                                                                      

Many scientists in today’s news have branded dolphins as “highly intelligent” mammals. Also, if you have ever visited Sea World and experienced the routines and tricks they perform, you can attest to this! Humans, (being one) I would like to say we’re fairly smart and produce some of the smartest people to ever walk the planet: Albert Einstein, Charles Darwin, Benjamin Franklin, Stephen Hawking and many more!

The purpose of the dolphin fin is to swim under water, which is where Dolphins reside. On the other hand, us humans reside on land, and we use are hands and arms in more ways than just swimming! (although we do swim) We are able to use our phalanges, which gives us a huge advantage (if I may say so) over that of the dolphins… Imagine if they had exposed fingers to use! When comparing the bone structure from human to dolphin we can see the similarities… Both possess: phalanges, carpals, ulnas, radiuses and humerus.

If one goes far enough back, precisely around 95 million years, we will find the common ancestor to dolphins and humans.

Analogous Traits:

Beavers are the clever engineers of the woods. They are classified as a rodent, and are in fact the largest of the rodents! They are herbivores, preferring to eat bark, roots and aquatic plants and the two species can be found in the woods of North America, Europe and Asia. Beavers are also known for their very strong teeth, which are much needed when cutting down trees to build their homes. Unlike the Beaver, Platypus’s are bottom feeders eating anything from larvae, shellfish and worms, which they scoop up in the bill. Unfortunately they were not blessed with the strong teeth of the beaver, they have no teeth, and can only mash their food. Platypus’s are found in Australia and do contain one perk that beavers do not possess… poisonous venom found on the males in sharp stingers on the heels located on the rear feet.  

The beaver and the Platypus are two different species that share one very similar trait… Their tails!

The structure of the tails from both the beaver and the platypus are very similar. Both of these mammals use this to trait to their advantage; for beavers it’s for swimming and building their burrows and dams, for Platypuses it’s for the art of swimming and navigating smoothly under water. These traits evolved independently from one another, and they are of a different species; although the beaver uses his to build, they both use their tails to swim!

Platypus remains of what was believed to be a distant forebear of both the platypus and the echidna—the fossil species Teinolophos—"actually belong to an early platypus, according to scientists who performed an x-ray analysis of a Teinolophos jawbone." (National Geographic) Platypuses originate from the subclass prototheria, All prototherians laid eggs, as did their therapsid ancestors. The only prototherians surviving today are the duck billed platypus and the echidnas.

The beaver family, Castoridae, contains the two living species of beaver and their fossil relatives. But the earliest ancestor that was recorded belonging to the beaver was known as Agnotocastor. Belonging to the sub class Theria, mammals who’s young’s are born alive (not in eggs).